Bridge Discuss the complex relationship between Eddie and Catherine Essay Example for Free

Bridge Discuss the complex relationship between Eddie and Catherine EssayThe play is set in a slum bea in Brooklyn.Between 1861 and 1920, 30 million people immigrated into America. Many people settled by the ports as there was a steady yield of work from the ships and Eddie Carbone is one of these longshore custody.Eddie is the forceful, irrational protagonist with many complex emotions while his niece (by marriage only) is rather nave and open. As they live in the same house, they glide by most of their time with each other and get on well together as family. Eddie and Beatrice (his wife) took Catherine in when her mother died and therefore, Eddie feels a great sense of certificate of indebtednessI promised your mother on her deathbed. Im responsible for you.To Catherine, he is bid a paternal figure, and she does love and respect him that way. At first, I also believe that is how Eddie hypothecates of her.He provides a good home for her, puts food on the table and sees her through education, I judge truly wanting the best for her- to go up in the world. His aspirations are highI broke my back payin her stenography lessons so she could go out and meet a better class of people.His social aspirations for her are obviously higher than his own community- simply does that mean he is snobbish of his own class? I think, perhaps slightly.Eddies protectiveness of Catherine can be just like a normal fathers, as he says about her new skirtI think it too short, aint it?But often, this protectiveness can turn into dominance and possessiveness every last(predicate) over his niece and his attitude towards her becomes unnatural. Eddie is never completely at ease. He tells her shes walkin wavy, but this is because he is subconsciously sexually attracted to her. He criticises her appearance and behaviour because she is attractive to other men and he does non like that. I think, in a way, he believes she is his and he wants her all to himself- i.e. if he cannot ha ve her, no one can.I think to aid this, he tries to keep her a little girl, when actually, she is becoming a womanYoure a baby.. when you stand here by the window waving outside.The pronounce baby is mentioned constantly as if it will eventually persuade Catherine that she is one. This environment would be suffocating for her.However, Beatrice isnt blind to all thisYou gonna keep her in the house all your life?Eddie (insulted) What kinda remark is that?She has not had sex with Eddie for quite a while and I think she knows it is because of his desire for Catherine.When Alfieri makes a joke about Catherine not being able to marry Eddie, he doesnt laugh, as he kick the buckets to realise his sexual feelings for Catherine are becoming more apparent. When Beatrice finally saysYou want somethin else, Eddie, and you can never have herHe is stunned with silence, but I think deep down, he knows it is the truth.Eddies positive and negative elements are often intertwined, but I think his int entions for Catherine were good however the feelings he acquired for her should have been dealt with differently.Catherines attitude to Eddie is entirely different though. Eddie who lays down the laws heavily influences her, but she seems totally unaware of her sexual appeal generally, but especially to Eddie. Beatrice actually has to tell her about itbut youre a grown woman and youre in the same house as a grown man. So youll act different now, heh?Although Catherine is rather innocent, but I think that is because she is overprotected, so, in effect, there is a viscous circle.Catherines attitude to Eddie is, totally non-sexual, but after Beatrices talk, she does start to become aware of what could be going on, perhaps a little.It didnt even cross her mind that she was a potential rival to BeatriceHe said you was jealous?When Catherine falls in love with Rodolfo, Eddie cannot stand this, and does everything in his power to stop it, as his subconscious desires tear him apart slowly. He even calls the immigration chest of drawers and risks his respect (which means so much to him) for her.I feel that both Eddie and Catherine were partly to blame for the tragic end of their relationship and in general. However, Catherine gained her confidence and independency a little more toward the end of the play. Eddies possessiveness and dominance over Catherine suffocated her into staying a baby, but I feel she could/should have been more self- aware, especially of the situation round her.

Mental Models About a Persons World Essay Example for Free

Mental Models About a Persons World EssayINTRODUCTIONMeeting a mortal for the first base time, backside either be a verifying or negative experience and the way someone interacts with this person preserve also examine both positive and negative behaviours. So the head teacher is, how flock psychological models about a persons world, both aid them and also limit their perceptions when get together a person for the first time. Through exploring how and why these perceptions can be assisted and limited, we can start to question the reasoning behind our cordial models. MENTAL MODELSThroughout the years, academic writings has defined a mental model in many slipway, however the best way to understand what a mental model is, is the deeply imbedded ways of view or even certain images, that trigger assumptions and generalisations, ultimately affecting the way a person responds too or behaves in the world, be it towards a person or a life situation (Senge 2006). A good examp le of a mental model is, the generalization that only rich hatful live in the eastern suburbs of Sydney. This generalisation whitethorn be true in some cases, but in other cases, other battalion may live there because they have lived their all their lives, and so, we can see this particular generalisation or mental model has nary(prenominal)prenominal) be thought through. not questioning mental models, can often lead to false generalisations, this situation can also arise when meeting a person for the first time.When meeting a person for the first time, our mental models can help us both understand and ultimately get along with the person or they can limit our perceptions, signification we make assumptions or generalisations that eventually alter our perceptions about this person or how we act towards them. Very often, we see that we atomic number 18 not consciously awargon of our mental models and the affects that they can have on our behaviour (Chermack 2003), this in turn, restricts our perceptions. Mental models argon often vague, incomplete and imprecisely expressed (Karp 2005) however, once believed, mental models are extremely difficult to change (Chermack 2003). This is highly due to thefact that people are unaware of their own mental models, and the only way for a person to change their mental model, is for them to ack at one timeledge that they have one to start with.Mental models can be useful as they can help us to process schooling and make decisions quickly (Unknown 1997) and they can also be imperative foundations for building knowledge about the world we live in (Karp 2005). For instance, when an soulfulness has a mental model that all take away nourishment is bad for their health and wellbeing, when given the option of either having take away food or a good meal at home, the idiosyncratics mental model will therefore lead them to quickly decide to eat a healthy meal at home.However, very strong mental models can hinder active thinki ng and the acceptance of newborn ideas (Unknown 1997), and often arise problems when they are tacit, meaning that they are below the level of awareness (Senge 1992). Using the example of the Detroit auto maker, not recognising that they had the mental model that all that customers cared about was styling, believing that all people care about is styling, evidently shows us that their mental model had become tacit. This mental model continued to be unexamined, and because this mental model remained unexamined, the model remained unchanged, and indeed as the world changed the offer grew among the mental model of this Detroit automaker and the world (Senge 1992). Clearly, mental models can perform as filters that screen incoming information that come to us, limiting our ways of thinking and also our perceptions (Unknown 1997).An individuals mental model represents their view on the world, it also provides them with the context in which they view and interpret new material and also n ew people in which they meet for the first time (Kim 1993). It not only helps us to make sense of what is going on around us, but it can also restrict our understanding of a certain situation. For example, when someone has been labeled as not a nice person, with never questioning the validity of it, people create a mental model that, that person is not nice, and so when they do or say something nice it goes unnoticed, and therefore, the behaviour does not fit with the mental model people have towards thiscertain individual. These untested assumptions or mental models can eventually cause conflict and misunderstandings between people.Developing skills in reflection and inquiry can aid us in realising our mental models and also with traffic with others. When we use skills of reflection we slow gobble up our ways of thinking and acknowledge how our mental models are formed and how they affect our behaviour. Where as skills of inquiry, is concerned with how we operate in face-to-face situations with others, especially when we are dealing with complex and conflictual issues (Senge 2006). Together with the tools and methods used to develop these skills these constitute the core of the discipline of mental models, which consists of the distinctions between espoused theories and theories-in-use, recognising leaps of abstraction, exposing the left-hand tug and balancing inquiry and advocacy (Senge 2006).When an individual says that they judge or desire something, that is known as espoused theory, however, what they actually say or do, is known as theories-in-use (Bocham 2010). Acknowledging the gaps between what we say and what we do, can be seen as an effective reflective skill in becoming more aware of our mental models. Someone may profess their view (espoused theory) that people generally are trustworthy, but their actions (theories-in-use) show differently, as they never lend out money and keep their possessions to themselves (Senge 2006). As evident in the ex ample above, there is a gap between the individuals espoused theory and their theory-in-use. By recognising the gap between espoused theory and the theory-in-use, learning can occur, as we as individuals question whether or not we really value our espoused theory (Senge 2006).When we meet a person for the first time, we can quickly jump into generalisations as we never think to question them. For example, when we meet a person and they say that they are a doctor, we automatically assume that they are smart, as it is a generalization that all doctors are smart we never seem to question this mental model. These are known as leaps of abstraction. Leaps of abstraction occur when we move from direct observations to generalisations without questioning them, this ultimatelyimpedes learning because it becomes axiomatic, as what was once an assumption is now treated as a fact (Senge 2006). Therefore, this becomes another limitation, in which mental models can have on our perceptions when we meet people for the first time. However, these leaps of abstraction can easily be identified when people ask what their generalisation is based-on and whether or not the generalisation is inaccurate or misleading (Senge 2006)Senge (2006) identifies the left-hand column as a powerful technique whereby individuals gravel to see how their mental models operate in differing situations. This exercise can show individuals that they indeed have mental models and show them how those models play an active part in sometimes negative interactions with people, not only do these people become aware of their mental models, but they begin to acknowledge why dealing with these assumptions is imperative (Senge 2006).In order for good talk between individuals to arise, people need to recognise that in order for the parley process to be effective, mental models must be managed properly, this is done by balancing advocacy and inquiry (Peggy Bronn 2003). Advocacy is the process of communicating an i ndividuals ways of thinking and reasoning in a manner that makes it clear for others (Peggy Bronn 2003). When there is advocacy without inquiry, it only leads to more advocacy, and therefore leads to two individuals stating their ways of reasoning and thinking, they both are keen to here the others views, but do not inquire into what they are saying because they believe that what they are saying is ultimately the best way of thinking. A way to tackle this, is through the process of inquiry.Inquiry engages two individuals into the communication process in a joint learning process (Peggy Bronn 2003). Here the object is to understand the reasoning and thinking of the other individual, this can be done by asking them questions in order for them to determine the origin for their conclusions and statements (Peggy Bronn 2003). Individuals can do this by asking questions such as What is it that leads you to that position? and can you illustrate your point for me? (Senge 2006). Thus, it is evidentthat grasping the skill of balancing advocacy and inquiry, is highly preferential in interacting with other individuals, especially those you meet for the first time.CONCLUSIONTherefore, it is imperative and highly advantageous for us to question our mental models in everyday situations, such as meeting people for the first time, as it will deter us from automatically making assumptions and making generalisations. Through acknowledging leaps of abstraction, using the left-hand column technique and also personally mastering the skill of balancing advocacy and inquiry, we can learn to question these mental models, and thus questioning whether or not they really do hold their value in our world. Thus, when we meet a person for the first time, before we make assumptions and generalisations, we may need to recognise our imbedded mental models and learn to question them, therefore aiding the process of communication to be a positive experience.REFERENCE LISTBochman, DJ Kroth, M. 2010, Immunity to transformational learning and change, _The Learning Organization,_ vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 328-342.Chermack, TJ 2003, Mental models in decision making and implications for human resource development, _Advances in Developing Human Resources,_ vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 408-422.Karp, T 2005, Unpacking the Mysteries of Change Mental Modelling, _Journal of Change Management,_ vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 87-96.Kim, DH 1993, The Link Between Individual and Organizational Learning, _Sloan management review,_ vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 37-37.Peggy, SB Bronn, C 2003, A reflective stakeholder approach Co-orientation as a basis for communication learning, _Journal of CommunicationManagement,_ vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 291-303.Senge, P 2006, Mental Models, _The fifth discipline the art and practice of learning organizations,_ rev. edn, Doubleday, New York, pp. 163-190.Senge, PM 1992, Mental Models, _Planning Review,_ vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 4-4.Unknown 1997, What are Mental Models?, _Sloan management review,_ vol. 38, no. 3, p. 13.

Elderly Physical Activity And Exercise Health And Social Care Essay

Elderly Physical Activity And work bring out Health And Social Cargon sampleAccording to Foster (1983), well hoary are people over the age of 65 who live in the community out of an institutional background signal who continue their life-long patterns of coping with life and living.2.2.0 Physical drill and influence2.2.1 Definitions of Physical Activity and ExerciseCaspersen, Powell and Christenson (1985) defined bodily activeness as any visible causes produced by skeletal muscles that result in energy expenditure whereas drill was defined as planned, structured, repetitive, and purposive bodily movement done to improve or maintain one or more components of material fitness. In several studies these two terms are used interchangeably.Melillo et al. (1996) express that when compared to animal(prenominal) exertion, work is altogether a component of the over only concept. According to O Brien Cousins (1998) when gerontologists need to measure amounts of physical moveme nts that the senior(a) may be doing , they tend to use the term physical legal action instead of maneuver or swordplay as the latter two may sound like high-exertion and risky activity.2.2.2 Perceptions of Physical Activity and ExerciseHutton et al. (2009) studied the view of physical activity in senileer hand well-nighs. Some consider the involvement in everyday activities such as household chores, unemployed pursuits and gardening sufficient for them to meet their physical requirements. On the other hand, others believed that activity needs would be met if one participates in specific tasks other then cursory activities.Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001) studied the variety in perception of consumption between the less and the more physically clear group of old adults. The less physically capable group defined apply as maintaining basic abilities and movement. The more physically capable think that exercise should push physical limits and eventually train a goal, although they did not oppose that ageing increases the challenge in activities of passing(a) living. Wilcox, Oberrecht, Bopp, Kammermann and McElmurray (2005) came to similar conclusions after analysing immemorial womens attempt in describing the difference between the physical activity and exercise. Physical activity was viewed as broader than exercise.Walcott- McQuigg and Prohaska (2001) distinguished exercise definition between old adults at different storys of readiness to change, used in the Transtheoretical Stages of Change ensample by Prochaska et al. (1997). Precontemplators viewed exercise as a form of physical exertion such as performing calisthenics and push ups. Participation in dinner dress programs, move and home exercises were contemplators perceptions of exercise. A broader definition was leave behindn by the action and maintenance group as exercise was defined as housework, dancing, general movement and attending societal functions.2.2.3 Recommendations of ExerciseT heAmeri grass College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) and theAmerican Heart Association (AHA) released exercise guidelines in 2007 which are an update from the 1995 guidelines by ACSM and Centers for Disease inhibit and Prevention (CDC). The new good word of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise for adults over age 65 identified 30 minutes a day, five days per calendar week as the recommended minimum as opposed to previous one that stated accumulation of 30 minutes or more on intimately, preferably all days of the week (Haskell et al., 2007). A subjective scale that ranges from 1 (resting) and 10 (an all out effort), is used since moderate intensity cannot be defined in absolute terms. Moderate intensity exercise means working hard at about train-six intensity and being able to carry on a conversation during exercise (ACSM AHA, n.d.).2.2.4 Perceptions of Exercise RecommendationIn 2004, Belza et al. make up that older adults understood the ACSM and CDC recommendation. In a similar de termine done by Wilcox et al. (2005) amongst old women, the participants expressed the idea that moderate-intensity is subjective as it depends on the person. Housework and move were the two most examples given to illustrate the meaning. opposites defined moderate intensity by the level of exertion such as sweating, when the heart start pounding and going beyond comfort level. The word accumulate in the recommendation resulted in uncertainty. When asked to give their general opinion on the recommendation, some said that it was good and real numberistic and others said it was not. In the same require it has been shown that older adults believe that adapt recommendations to ones age and physical wellness is more sensible than just using one-size-fits-all recommendation.2.3.0 Benefits of Exercise2.3.1 Documented Benefits of ExerciseJuarbe, Turok and Perez-Stable (2002) declared that physical inactivity is one of the most cardinal amendable risk factor for many diseases. WHO (2003 ) stated that physical activity is all important(p) in the prevention of non-communicable chronic diseases such as osteoporosis, instance 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity. The risk of deaths from cardiovascular disease is reduced by moderate levels of physical activity (Bassett et al., 2002, as cited in Belza et al., 2004). Blumenthal et al. (1999) stated that routine physical exercise diminishes mental concerns such as depression and anxiety. Regular exercise is likewise related to a reduction in the risk of falling (Gregg, Pereira Caspersen, 2000). Cress et al. (2005, as cited by Hardy Grogan, 2009) stated that physical activity helps the fourth-year to keep up a better quality of life by enabling them to have the opportunity for a more active and independent life. OBrien Cousins (2000, as cited in OBrien Cousins, 2003) explains that venerable see physical activity as high risk behaviour, when in actual fact it is chronic lying in bed which decondition the body and increases the risk of wellness problems. In fact Booth, Bauman and Owen (2002) confirm that the risks associated with a sedentary life-style far exceed the risks associated with regular fight in regular physical activity.2.3.2 Knowledge and Perceptions of the Benefits of ExerciseIt was open that when elderly lack the confidence in physical activity engagement, that is exercise self efficacy, being knowledgeable about the benefits of exercise will not necessarily result in increased physical activity engagement (Phillips, Schneider Mercer, 2004).Crombie et al. (2004) in their study bring out that elderly had high levels of knowledge about the specific health benefits from exercise affaire. However, a small summate of participants gave the wrong responses or were unsure of the effects. 15% thought that physical activity can lead to long-term hypertension and 13% thought that exercise can weaken bones. 10% did not believe that participation in regular physical activity would not help the m to recover better and in remain independent. Most elderly believed that exercise can help to improve physical fitness, maintain levels of energy, maintain or increase muscle strength and tone, prevent aches and pains, and give them the opportunity to brotherlyise with other people.Wilcox et al. (2005) examined perceptions of exercise benefits and came up with three types namely being cant and appearance, physical health and mental health benefits. Physical health benefits were the most regularly mentioned benefits of exercise in this study. Such examples include heart strengthening, improving arthritis, and decreasing joint stiffness. Some pointed out specific conditions that would benefit from exercise such as diabetes, high blood pressure and cholesterol. Stress reduction, improved alertness, feeling better, feeling good and improved sleep are examples of mental health benefits cited in the study.When asked about the health benefits of exercise in the study of Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001), many seniors mentioned weight loss and improvements in the heart and breathing. However, it was rear that it was easier for elderly to appreciate or detect increased leg strength than increased cardiac fitness, even though they were interested in increasing aerobic and cardiovascular capacity.Walcott-McQuigg and Prohaska (2001) discovered the difference in discussion of benefits between elderly at different stages of exercise. Precontemplators and contemplators discussed benefits in terms of disease processes, such as it keeps you from having the hardening of arteries, prevents weight gain and helps the circulation. bandage those who exercised used terms such as keeping alert, energizing, relief of stress, keeps you in shape and prevents you from getting stiff. Leavy and Aberg (2010) found out that the inactive and moderately active elderly did not believe strongly that being active could add to life span or avoid disease, despite not denying potential health benef its of exercise.2.4.0 Motivators to ExerciseResnick (1996, as cited in Keiba, 2004) defined motivation asthe inner urge that moves or prompts a person to actionmotivation comes from within.2.4.1.0 Personal Motivators2.4.1.1 Health and FitnessNewson and Kemps (2007) in their study among 222 elderly participants examined the incidence of exercise motivation from fitness, challenge or health factors. Fitness factors such as wanting to stay in shape and physically fit were marked as very obsess motivating factors in 51.3% and 51.6% of participants respectively. 30% of elderly stated that weight loss has never been a motivating factor to exercise, while 24.5% always exercise to lose weight. Cholesterol reduction and weight loss promote profound behaviours adoption such as healthy eating and exercise in elderly (Greaney, Lees, Greene Clark, 2004). Improving fitness, keep healthy and joint mobility maintenance were the most describe motives to engage in exercise and sports in particip ants of the study of Kolt, Driver and Giles (2004).2.4.1.2 ChallengeBeljic (2007) stated that competition can be an efficient motivational tool for elderly to exercise as it was common amongst elderly who constantly compared their blood glucose measurements whilst on a summer camp. Other people can be a source of external motivation through competition, cooperation and comparing (Fogg, 2003, as cited in Albaina, 2009). Factors such as competitivity and skills improvement were mostly marked as rare stimulating factors (Newson Kemps, 2007).2.4.1.3 PsychologicalResnick et al. (2002) explained social cognitive theory of Bandura (1997). They stated that forethought regulates human motivation and action. Outcome expectations and self-efficacy expectations are the basis of the behaviour cognitive control. This means that the person has to believe that a personal action will be followed by a certain outcome, and has to believe in his or her capability to perform such course of action. Exe rcise engagement has been repeatedly found to be predicted by a strong self belief in accomplishing exercise (Phillips et al., 2004). Resnick (2002) identified factors that had been found to increase self efficacy in older adults. Such factors include role modelling, verbal persuasionf and encouragement, education about exercise and reduction in exercise associated unpleasant sensations.Doing an activity the elderly really enjoy, was found to be a motivating factor to exercise (Melillo et al., 1996). Exercise adherence is influenced by physical activity enjoyment as discussed by Hardy and Grogan (2009).2.4.1.4 Other motivatorsAnother exercise enabler, time availability, emerged from the various studies including that of Scanlon-Mogel and Roberto (2004). 60% of elderly in the study agreed that role changes in later life such as retirement permit more time obtainable for elderly to participate in exercise. 9.1% of elderly in the study of Cohen-Mansfield, Marx and Guralnik (2003) ment ioned increased time availability as a motivating factor.Tolma, Lane, Cornman and Uddin, (2003) indicated that some elderly are motivated to exercise because of their perceived exercise benefits such being able to perform simple activities of daily living, keeping busy and prevent boredom.2.4.2 Social MotivatorsKeiba (2004) discussed that social embolden could encourage individuals to complete necessary unappealing activities because we as individuals are social in nature. This is peculiarly significant in the older adult who is more reluctant and cautious in attempting certain activities due to fear of decreased physical abilities and mental acuity. Berkman (1995, as cited in Resnick et al., 2002), described different types of social support related to exercise including instrumental, informational, emotional and appraisal types. Such examples of support include accompanying an old adult for a walk, sharing information about exercise, calling a friend to check if they have walked or giving verbal encouragement. According to Hardy and Grogan (2009), social support would increase elderly confidence and reassurance and thus enhance elderly self efficacy in exercise.Family as encouragement was one of the most important themes that emerged from the study by Belza et al. (2004). Family assisted elderly participation in exercise in several ways, such as getting them exercise equipment, providing enthral to exercise facilities and by encouraging their participation. Grossman and Stewart (2003, as cited in Bunn et al., 2008) agrees with the latter study as they both cited that decreasing the burden on their family by avoiding sickness was an incentive for some elderly to keep physically active. The motivation of some elderly to stay active and maintain a good quality of life arises from the death and weight problems of their loved ones (Hardy and Grogan, 2009).Cohen-Mansfield et al. (2003) found that 14% of participants stated that having someone to exercise with, motivates them to be physically active. Wilcox et al. (2005) supported this finding as they found that elderly physical activity participation increases and becomes more enjoyable when having someone to exercise with. It was reported that elderly discussed the idea of organizing neighbourhood groups to enable increased communication, support, and planning of physical activities. Because of increased social contact and motivation, group exercise encourages some elderly to be physically active according to Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001). 31.3% of African American and 27% of European American in the study of Schuler et al. (2006) stated that they exercise as it is something they can do with their friends.Swinburn, Walter, Arroll, Tilyard and Russell (1998) stated that patients consider a physicians exercise prescription important. Pfeiffer, Clay and Conatser (2001) in the evaluation of the former(prenominal) statement, pointed out that the physician believe in the health benefits of exe rcise since he or she equates exercise with medication. 6.1% of elderly in Nowak study (2006) mentioned physicians recommendation as a motive to exercise.2.4.3 Environmental MotivatorsExercise facility proximity to the elderlys house promotes exercise engagement in 10% of the participants in the study of Chen, Snyder and Krichbaum (2001). Huston, Evenson, Bors and Gizlice, (2003) studied further this enabler among elderly in America and found that performance in some type of leisure-time physical activity is increased by having access to parks, clubs and fitness centres, in the neck of the woods of their homes or workplace.Bunn, Dickinson, Barnett-Page, Mcinnes and Horton (2008) identified accessible and appealing information about physical and psychological benefits of exercise as facilitators to exercise. Convenient scheduling of exercise programmes which are tailor to needs or lifestyles enable exercise participation.2.5.0 Barriers of exerciseThe Oxford Study Dictionary (1994, pg.50) defined Barrier as something that prevents or controls advance, access, or progress. Hardy and Grogan (2009) stated that real or perceived barriers can significantly obstruct exercise participation.2.5.1.0 Personal Barriers2.5.1.1 HealthIn the study of Juarbe et al. (2002), 28.6% of elderly claimed that the maintenance of a regular physical activity program was impeded by their personal health condition. Cohen-Mansfield et al. (2003) reported that the ability to stay physically active can be influenced by a variety of chronic disabling illnesses and a general lack of understanding of the role of physical activity. 53% reported pain or health problems as a limitation to exercise. The elderly had the belief that due to their medical diagnosis they should not and were not allowed to participate in physical activity. 12% were restricted by shortness of breath while 27% were impeded by painful joints (Crombie et al., 2004). The perception of making their pain worse and feeling o f tiredness and dizziness restricted physical activity (Belza et al., 2004).2.5.1.2 ConcernsPetersen (2006) argued that for many older people, fear of injury is an impediment to exercise. Elderly may have multiple pathologies and they might be afraid of modify their symptoms such as pain, inducing injury such as a fracture and triggering hypoglycaemia for instance. Overexertion concerns were brought up in the study of Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001) such as unreassuring of death when the heart starts beating too fast. Fear of exercise-associated falls were cited as obstacles to exercise ( Lavizzo-Mourey et al., 2001) as they lead to a decline in confidence, which in turn discourage exercise participation (Bruce, Devine Prince, 2002, as cited in Bunn et al., 2008). Unwillingness to go out at night due to fear of being out totally hinders exercise participation (Crombie et al., 2004 Hardy and Grogan, 2009).2.5.1.3 PerceptionsWilcox et al. (2005) discussed elderly perception of being too old to exercise and their concern of doing more harm than good. 34.9% of elderly participants in the study of Nowak (2006) and 14.3% in the study of Chen et al. (2001) voiced their idea that their inappropriate age is occluding them from physical exertion. Zunft et al. (1999, as cited in Leavy Aberg, 2010) in their examination of perceived barriers of the older European adults, found that being too old or not being the sporty type were major barriers in physical activity participation. Relating physical activity to sport and the unawareness of the moderate-intensity activity importance on healthy aging, could rationalize these perceptions, argues Leavy and Aberg (2010). Crombie et al. (2004) pointed out the contribution of lack of positive beliefs of physical activity to sedentary behaviour. Some elderly women voiced their ideas that housework serves as a sufficient exercise and eliminate outside exercise activities requirement (Walcott-McQuigg Prohaska, 2001).2.5.1.4 Psychol ogicalNowak (2006) reported that 7.8% of elderly women cited self-consciousness as their reason for physical passivity. Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001) in their study assumed that participation in group exercise might be influenced by embarrassment. As reported in the study, an elderly person was concerned that when bending over, the person behind would see the whole rear exposed. Hutton et al. (2009) in their findings of exercise barriers reported feeling of self-consciousness when exercising in the presence of younger people with gym equipment.Dissatisfaction of the body appearance and body mass index, would affect the old adults body esteem and this would influence the level of physical activity (McLaren, Hardy Kuh, 2003, as cited in Hardy Grogan, 2009). McLaren et al. (2003) attributed this negative influence to the effect of body dissatisfaction on the persons sense of well-being and quality of life. escape of enjoyment is another known barrier to exercise (Wilcox et al., 2005), in fact it impedes 8.3% of elderly participants in the study of Cohen-Mansfield et al. (2003). Laziness, lack of motivation and willpower were identified as barriers to exercise (Walcott-McQuigg Prohaska, 2001 Wilcox et al., 2005). Dergance et al. (2003) in their study about the difference of barriers to leisure time physical activity across cultures found that 19% of Mexican Americans elderly and 45.9% of European Americans elderly stated lack of interest as a barrier. 11.4 % of elderly in the study of Chen et al. (2001) have never considered practicing Tai Chi as they were not interested.2.5.1.5 Other barriersO Brein Cousins (2003) argues that since older people pack their schedules with voluntary work, care giving roles and probably bingo and other passive games, they genuinely feel they have no spare time left to engage in physical activity. Similarly Schuler al. (2006) reported that among their study population, 12.2% of African American and 10.1% of European American cited l ack of time as an exercise barrier.Twenty nine percent of participants in Cheng et al. study in 2007 referred to their difficulty in memorising exercise styles as a barrier to exercise. 22.9% of elderly do not consider practicing Tai Chi as they think they will forget its complicated movements (Chen et al., 2001). The necessity of a walking aid is an impediment to exercise in the elderly (Lavizzo-Mourey et al., 2001).2.5.2 Social BarriersPetersen (2006), mentioned that physicians occasionally hinder lifestyle changes unintentionally. Patients are given the impression that exercise is not important as physicians do not inquire much about exercise. Rogers et al., (2006) reported low levels of physician counselling on physical activity. Only 34% of a survey participants cited being advised on exercise at their last doctor visit (Wee, McCarthy, Davis Phillips, 1999, as cited in Resnick et al., 2002). ONeil and Reid (1991, as cited in Melillo et al., 1996) found that 16% of elderly did not exercise as their doctor advised them to be careful and not to over-exert themselves.Belza et al., (2004) reported that elderly mentioned family and work obligations which interfere with physical activity routine maintenance. Walcott-McQuigg and Prohaska (2001) indicated that family responsibilities such as caring for grandchildren and older or ailing relatives are restricting the time available for elderly to be physically active. It was also stated that repeated family advice and encouragement can become irritating to the elderly person. Lack of social support from spouse, family and lack of company obstruct exercise participation (Lees, Clark, Nigg Newman, 2005 Wilcox et al., 2005). Ball, Bauman, Leslie and Owen (2001, as cited in Salvador, Florindo, Reis Costa, 2009) stated that walking during leisure time is 31% less likely in individuals who do not have anyone to exercise with. Antikainen et al., (2010) pointed out the elderly family members concern of overexertion and t hus resulting in little encouragement to exercise.Negative comments directed to elderly who attempted to exercise discourage physical activity participation (Jancey, Clarke, Howat, Maycock, Lee, 2009). Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001) emphasize this barrier as a group of children was a source of intimidation and hazard for certain elderly whilst doing exercise.2.5.3 Cultural BarriersA barrier that emerged in the study of Wilcox et al. (2005) was that in the past, exercise was not something discussed and stressed on, and they did not have exercise role models. In fact one elderly woman cited that she cannot project her mother doing exercise or even speaking about it. Similarly in the study of Nowak (2006) it was found that the most barriers associated with physical inactivity were cultural, originating from the lack of urbane customs of a physically active lifestyle in the society. Physical labour of past African American jobs led to their perception that additional exercise was not n ecessary (Walcott-McQuigg Prohaska, 2001).2.5.4 Environmental BarriersDifficulty, element of competition and lack of attraction of exercise classes were some of the elderly views that hindered their participation in a class, according to Hutton et al. (2009). qualm was a mentioned concern in a group exercise environment and this pressure is owed to the inability of keeping pace with the class. Wilcox et al. (2005) supported this report by his findings in which elderly discussed the lack of age-appropriate classes and expenses.In the study of Cohen-Mansfield et al. (2003), 10.9% of participants reported bad weather as an obstacle to exercise. Several issues related to rurality such as transport unavailability, lack of pavements, lack of safety and facilities were considered as barriers in Wilcox et al. study in 2005. Pfeiffer et al. (2001) supported these findings by their study and attributed the unavailability of sidewalks with the fear of falling and hence makes walking an unapp ealing exercise. In the study of Lavizzo-Mourey et al. (2001), unevenness of steps and pavements was cited as another barrier. 16 % of elderly in Cheng et al. study (2007) cited limited public space available to do exercise. Limitation and inappropriateness of space to exercise in the house was found to be a barrier in the study done by Juarbe et al. (2002), usually due to the fact that they live in a confined space with their relatives, shared residential homes or in an apartment. Hardy and Grogan (2009) in their investigating of the factors influencing engagement in physical activity concluded that the lack of information about exercise and the elderly is limiting their participation.2.6.0 Variables affecting Impeding and Motivating FactorsOBrien Cousins (1995, as cited in OBrien Cousins, 2003) has shown that the elderly involvement in exercise could be significantly affected by the individuals life circumstances such as the age, gender, education and health.2.6.1 eldBylina et a l. (2006) cited National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion when stating that 28-34% of adults between 65-74 years old and 35-44% of adults aged 75 or older are inactive, not exercising, and engaging in no leisure-time physical activities.Newson and Kemps (2007) compared those older than 75 years to their younger counterparts. They were more likely to exercise to maintain an active lifestyle and medical problems were more likely to prevent them from engaging in exercise. Kolt et al. (2004) found that involvement factors such as getting out of the house and having something to do, and medical motivators were rated more highly by those 75 + than the middle old. The middle-age group reported fitness reasons to be more important than the old-age group. The high ratings of involvement factors may be explained by McMurdo (2000) when stating that loneliness and isolation faced by older adults may be countered by the experience provided by physical activity and exerc ise.2.6.2 take aim of EducationWalsh, Rogot, Pressman, Cauley and Browner (2001) found out that medium or high intensity activities were activities that elderly women with greater than a high school education, were more likely to engage in. Similarly Cheng et al. (2007) reported that exercise participation was lower in less educated people .Highly educated elderly were found to be highly motivated to exercise by social and fitness motivators (Kolt et al, 2004) and an organized exercise program (Cohen-Mansfield, 2003). Involvement reasons were highly rated by those who did not complete high level education (Kolt et al, 2004).2.6.3 Level of ExerciseTime constraints and physical weakness were identified as barriers by the exercisers, while fear of falling and the negative consequences were mentioned by the non-exercisers. Lack of social support is a significant barrier for both. Having a buddy-system in a group exercise would encourage non exercisers to exercise (Lees et al., 2005). F itness and Challenge factors were reported as frequent motivators by the high-level exercisers when compared to low-level exercisers. Concern, medical factors and lack of facilities and knowledge were rated as frequent barriers to low-level exercisers (Newson Kemps, 2007). Health problems were more likely to be identified as barriers by the precontemplators, although it was a common report among the other groups. Lack of motivation and laziness were identified as barriers by the elderly at every stage of readiness to change (Walcott-McQuigg Prohaska, 2001). Social interaction was an opportunity which motivated the less active participants in particular, to take part in exercise (Leavy and Aberg, 2010).2.6.4 Marital and usual StatusCohen-Mansfield et al. (2003) found that having more time available would motivate a lot of married elderly to exercise more frequently. Additionally, it was discussed that since the unmarried would probably be more in need of social interactions, they showed more of an interest in finding someone to accompany them in exercise. It was further discussed that the more socially disjointed persons may benefit from social forms of exercise as group exercise would motivate them to exercise.2.7 ConclusionElderly persons have different perception of exercise definition, recommendation and benefits. A vast range of motivators and barriers were found to encourage or impede elderly participation in exercise. The perceptions, barriers and motivators were also found to differ with different elderly background characteristics and level of exercise.